Daily Prompt: VIP

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZgdFMIk38Ms

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Right to Health

The Right to Health

Understanding Children’s Right to Health

Health is vitally important for every human being in the world. What ever our differences may be, health is our most important commodity. A person in bad health cannot really live life to the fullest.

The principle characteristics of the right to health

Health is the state of physical, mental and social well-being and does not only mean an absence of illness or disease.

The right to health is closely linked to other fundamental human rights, most notably access to potable water and adequate hygiene.

The right to health includes access to health services

All children have the right to timely access to appropriate health services. This requires the establishment of a system to protect health, including access to essential medicine.

The realization of the right to health implies that each country will put in place health services that are available in any circumstance, accessible to everyone, of good quality and satisfactory (meaning they conform to medical ethics and are respectful of our biological and cultural differences.)

However, this does not mean that the country must guarantee good health to everyone. (see also: Distinction between the right to health and the right to good health)

The right to health also involves prevention and awareness campaigns

Prevention plays an essential role in maintaining public health, particularly children’s health. Health education and vaccinations prevent the spread of infectious disease.

Vaccinations are efficient because they are fairly inexpensive and they protect children against the risk of death and handicaps caused by the most common children’s diseases (tuberculosis, diphtheria, tetanus, leprosy, polio, whooping cough, measles.) In the long term, these vaccinations can even lead to the end of these diseases in a given country.

Vaccinating children, as well as awareness campaigns, can lead to a significant reduction in health risks. Additionally, spreading basic information about hygiene, nutritional needs, etc., as well as the circulation of simple illustrations reminding people of the fundamental rules are very efficient actions for informing populations and improving healthy behavior.

Additionally, it is important to inform the population about the harmful effects that child marriage or Female genital mutilation have on children’s health.

Children’s right to health

For children, the right to health is vital because they are vulnerable beings, more at risk to illness and health complications. When children are spared from disease, they can grow into healthy adults, and in this way, contribute to the development of dynamic and productive societies.

The right for children to enjoy the best possible state of health

Children require extra attention in order to enjoy the best possible health. This allows them to develop properly during their childhood and teenage years.

At every step of their physical and mental development, children have specific needs and different health risks. Additionally, a newborn is more vulnerable and more exposed to certain diseases than a young child or teenager (i.e. infectious disease, malnutrition.)

On the other hand, a teenager, due to his or her habits and behavior, are exposed to other kinds of risks (sexual health, mental health, alcohol and drug use etc.)

Generally, a child who benefits from appropriate health care will enjoy a better state of health during the stages of childhood and can become a healthy adult.

Pre and Postnatal Health care.

The right to children’s health also includes pre and postnatal care for mothers.

A newborn will have a much lower chance of survival if the mother dies due to complications from pregnancy or childbirth.

Right to Health…

RERUNS”

The Very Best of reRun’s 1st Year!
2-For-1 Double Features, One Week Only!

*** Filmmakers in person at all screenings on Tuesday (8/30), Wednesday (8/31), Thursday (9/1) ***

“reRun RERUNS” is a week-long sampler of programming highlights in champagne celebration of reRun’s 1st anniversary. Scheduled as themed 2-for-1 double features, the series will include our favorite films since July 2010 (acclaimed DIY indies! music docs! avant-garde fare!), special guests in person, online drink specials, and late-summer shenanigans. “reRun RERUNS” screens August 26 – September 1.

AUDREY THE TRAINWRECK (Friday 8/26, 7pm) – CANCELED DUE TO IRENE!

Dir. Frank V. Ross. With Anthony Baker, Alexi Wasser, Danny Rhodes, Jess Weixler, Nick Offerman. 85mins.

[Watch the trailer] The film that launched reRun! A critical favorite at SXSW 2010, this slyly comic Chicago-set drama from the director of PRESENT COMPANY and HOHOKAM is about attempting to keep one’s existence simple (and the innate beauty of such absurd pursuits), as seen through “an incisive portrait of the suburban working-class” (Karina Longworth, THE VILLAGE VOICE).

“A scruffy, tender but very funny romance… Ross is something of an indie Robert Altman, with his huge cast of characters and plaited strands of dialogue, and he has a sharp and comic eye for intimacy, domesticity, and practicality.”
- Richard Brody, THE NEW YORKER

0S & 1S
(Friday 8/26, 10pm) – CANCELED DUE TO IRENE!
Dir. Eugene Kotlyarenko. With Morgan Krantz, Alexi Wasser, Jeremy Blackman. 86mins.

[Watch the trailer] Pronounced “Zeros and Ones,” Kotlyarenko’s savvy feature debut is a hip and visually audacious comedy about our obsession and overreliance on the very screen you’re looking at now. Boasting an awesome indie soundtrack (No Age, Ariel Pink, Wavves, Mika Miko) and clever digital effects, 0S & 1S “may be the ultimate has-to-be-seen-more-than-once movie” (Neil Genzlinger, THE NEW YORK TIMES).

“Smartly made and completely funny! Does a tremendous job of capturing the hysteria of social media.”
- Lena Dunham, director of TINY FURNITURE

St. Nick, General Orders No. 9

ST. NICK
(Monday 8/29, 7pm)
Dir. David Lowery. With Tucker Sears, Savannah Sears, Barlow Jacobs. 101mins total.

[Watch the trailer] Winner of a Grand Jury prize at the AFI Dallas International Film Festival and a cult hit at SXSW, Sarasota and Maryland, Lowery’s mysterious adventure is a haunting and lovely portrait of childhood set on the stark plains of Texas. The film screens with Lowery’s PIONEER (Best Narrative Short winner at SXSW 2011), starring actor-musician-iconoclast Will Oldham as a father who tells his little boy the most epic bedtime story ever.

“This is a film that keeps going — in your head as you think about what was going on, in the car on the way home as you talk about what may have really been going on.”
- Tom Maurstad, THE DALLAS MORNING NEWS

GENERAL ORDERS NO. 9
(Monday 8/29, 10pm, STAY FOR FREE AFTER “ST. NICK”)
Dir. Robert Persons. Documentary. 72mins.

[Watch the trailer] A dazzling cinematic experience that breaks from the constraints of the documentary form to contemplate the signs of loss and change in the American South. The stunning culmination of over eleven years’ work, Persons’ feature debut marries experimental filmmaking with an accessible, naturalist sensibility that “makes Malick look like a shot of straight Hollywood” (Michael Tully, HAMMER TO NAIL).

“Coming seemingly out of nowhere… rewards repeated viewings… A true original.”
- Robert Koehler, VARIETY

Loveless, Gabi on the Roof in July

LOVELESS
(Tuesday 8/30, 7pm, FILMMAKERS IN PERSON)
Dir. Ramin Serry. With Andrew Von Urtz, Cindy Chastain, Genevieve Hudson-Price, Scott Cohen. 92mins.

[Watch the trailer] Our most popular film to date is the long-awaited second feature from Serry (whose debut MARYAM was given “two thumbs up” by Ebert & Roeper), a wryly funny comedy about a commitment-phobic New York City bachelor in crisis. Carrying the film with a rare combination of wit, intelligence and emotional complexity, newcomer Von Urtz stars as a would-be filmmaker with the slippery soul of a con artist.

“Dryly hilarious! At times, LOVELESS recalls Martin Scorsese’s AFTER HOURS in its blend of black comedy and inchoate yearning. Watch for Serry; he is a genuine talent, with a sidewinding sense of humor and an affection for his characters. Even the jerks.”
- Michael Phillips, THE CHICAGO TRIBUNE

GABI ON THE ROOF IN JULY
(Tuesday 8/30, 10pm, FILMMAKERS IN PERSON, STAY FOR FREE AFTER “LOVELESS”)
Dir. Lawrence Michael Levine. With Sophia Takal, Levine, Louis Cancelmi, Kate Lyn Sheil, Lena Dunham. 99mins.

[Watch the trailer] A caustically funny yet sincere portrait of young New York and the misguided hopefuls who can’t afford to live there but do anyway. Levine’s assured, character-driven comedy about ex-girlfriends, sibling rivalry and whipped cream is “sharply observed. Talented performers have developed credible characters and realistic scenes of life among the young and confused in bohemian Brooklyn” (Mike Hale, THE NEW YORK TIMES).

“Levine deploys a poised eye and witty dialogue that sticks like a needle left sitting on a cushion… Wisely observant of human nature as it bounces between its leads, GABI evokes Woody Allen with a more generous heart (and a lot more casual nudity).”
- Steve Dollar, THE WALL STREET JOURNAL

NY Export Opus Jazz, The Family Jams

NY EXPORT: OPUS JAZZ
(Wednesday 8/31, 7pm, FILMMAKER IN PERSON)
Dir. Henry Joost and Jody Lee Lipes. Documentary. 74mins.

[Watch the trailer] An ambitious, sexy and jaw-droppingly gorgeous adaptation of Jerome Robbins’ beloved “ballet in sneakers,” Joost and Lipes’ SXSW Audience Award winner is “austere in purpose and yet lush and expansive in execution, suffused with summer heat and Terrence Malick cinematic light” (James Wolcott, VANITY FAIR). The screening will include JEROME ROBBINS’ BALLETS: USA, a never-before-seen documentary commissioned by the State Department in 1958.

“Oozing seductive passion, sorrowful yearning, and playful joy, OPUS JAZZ is a brief but striking film that demonstrates the capacity of art (be it dance, music, or cinema) to speak volumes without saying a word.”
- Nick Schager, THE VILLAGE VOICE

THE FAMILY JAMS
(Wednesday 8/31, 10pm, FILMMAKER IN PERSON, STAY FOR FREE AFTER “OPUS JAZZ”)
Dir. Kevin Barker. Documentary. 81mins.

[Watch the trailer] An evocative rock-n-roll portrait of youthful possibility, THE FAMILY JAMS catches three musical acts (Devendra Banhart, Joanna Newsom, and Vetiver’s Andy Cabic), at the fleeting moment when they transcended the world they built for themselves and everyone else took notice. Featuring appearances and performances by Antony and the Johnsons, Espers, Meg Baird, The Pleased and Linda Perhacs.

“[CRITICS' PICK!] THE FAMILY JAMS may not ever attain the stature of, say, a concert film like DA Pennebaker’s DONT LOOK BACK. But it should, as a record of musicians in youthful flower, sharing a loose, heartfelt camaraderie and lack of pretension.”
- Andy Webster, THE NEW YORK TIMES

MODERN LOVE IS AUTOMATIC
(Thursday 9/1, 7pm, FILMMAKERS IN PERSON)
Dir. Zach Clark. With Melodie Sisk, Maggie Ross, Carlos Bustamante. 93mins.

[Watch the trailer] Mischievously deadpan and deliciously perverse, Clark’s no-wave comedy follows the secret exploits of a bored nurse who becomes drawn into a seedy world of lonely men, cheap motel rooms, whips and chains. “It’s all kind of addictive,” says THE NEW YORK TIMES‘ Neil Genzlinger. “Mr. Clark lands you, and his characters, at a place you weren’t expecting.”

“The schizo theatrics, professionally assured performances, and a too-rare funniness here make for absorbing and refreshing viewing.”
- Justin Stewart, THE L MAGAZINE

VACATION!
(Thursday 9/1, 10pm, FILMMAKERS IN PERSON, STAY FOR FREE AFTER “MODERN LOVE…”)
Dir. Zach Clark. With Trieste Kelly Dunn, Melodie Sisk, Maggie Ross, Lydia Hyslop. 95mins.

[Watch the trailer] Clark’s follow-up to MODERN LOVE IS AUTOMATIC is an existential beach party movie about life, death, sex, drugs and other shit that totally fucks you up. When four college friends reunite for a girls’ week at the beach, it’s all bikinis, piña coladas and dance parties at first. But the fun soon fades away in this “edgy cocktail laced with longing and nihilism… The vision is utterly contemporary” (Mike Goodridge, SCREEN INTERNATIONAL).

“Sex and death and music haven’t got stuck in the same blender quite like this since Kenneth Anger last put his camera down.”
- Tim Hayes, CRITICS NOTEBOOK

RERUNS”…

Paste a Video URL

https://evbdn.eventbrite.com/s3-s3/eventlogos/
NY EXPORT: OPUS JAZZ
(Wednesday 8/31, 7pm, FILMMAKER IN PERSON)
Dir. Henry Joost and Jody Lee Lipes. Documentary. 74mins.
[Watch the trailer] An ambitious, sexy and jaw-droppingly gorgeous adaptation of Jerome Robbins’ beloved “ballet in sneakers,” Joost and Lipes’ SXSW Audience Award winner is “austere in purpose and yet lush and expansive in execution, suffused with summer heat and Terrence Malick cinematic light” (James Wolcott, VANITY FAIR). The screening will include JEROME ROBBINS’ BALLETS: USA, a never-before-seen documentary commissioned by the State Department in 1958.
“Oozing seductive passion, sorrowful yearning, and playful joy, OPUS JAZZ is a brief but striking film that demonstrates the capacity of art (be it dance, music, or cinema) to speak volumes without saying a word.”
- Nick Schager, THE VILLAGE VOICE4951781/nyexportopusjazzthefamilyjams.jpg

Topics Constitution Constitutional Sheriffs And Peace Officers Association Federalism Gun Control/2nd Amendment Joe Arpaio Obama’s America Sheriff Richard Mack United States Us Presidents
U.S. County Sheriffs say “no” to Obama gun control
As the Shadow of Tyranny creeps ever more and more over America, the U.S. County Sheriff is the line in the sand.

The county sheriff is the one who can say to the feds, “Beyond these bounds you shall not pass.” This is not only within the scope of the sheriff’s authority; it’s the sheriff’s sworn duty.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2nZLCRuCBAM

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Creation: Largest structure in Universe

This chronology of the universe describes the history and future of the universe according to Big Bang cosmology, the prevailing scientific model of how the universe came into being and developed over time, using the cosmological time parameter of comoving coordinates. The instant in which the universe is thought to have begun rapidly expanding from a singularity is known as the Big Bang. As of 2011, best estimates date this expansion 13.75 billion years ago.^[1]^[2] It is convenient to divide the evolution of the universe so far into three phases.

The very earliest universe was so hot, or energetic, that initially no particles existed or could exist (except perhaps in the most fleeting sense), and the forces we see around us today were believed to be merged into one unified force. Space itself expanded during an inflationary epoch due to the immensity of the energies involved. Gradually the immense energies cooled – still to a temperature inconceivably hot compared to any we see around us now, but sufficiently to allow forces to gradually undergo symmetry breaking, a kind of repeated condensation from one status quo to another, leading finally to the separation of the strong force from the electroweak force and the first particles.

In the second phase, this quark-gluon plasma universe then cooled further, the current fundamental forces we know take their present forms through further symmetry breaking – notably the breaking of electroweak symmetry - and the full range of complex and composite particles we see around us today became possible, leading to a matter dominated universe, the first neutral atoms (almost all hydrogen) and the cosmic microwave background we can detect today. Modern high energy particle physicstheories are satisfactory at these energy levels, and so physicists believe they have a good understanding of this and subsequent development of the fundamental universe around us. Because of these changes, space had also become largely transparent to light and other electromagnetic energy rather than “foggy” by the end of this phase.

The third phase started with a universe whose fundamental particles and forces were as we know them, and witnessed the emergence of large scale stable structures, such as the earliest stars,quasars, galaxies, clusters of galaxies and superclusters, and the development of these to create the kind of universe we see today.

Very early universe

All ideas concerning the very early universe (cosmogony) are speculative. No accelerator experiments have yet probed energies of sufficient magnitude to provide any experimental insight into the behavior of matter at the energy levels that prevailed during this period. Proposed scenarios differ radically. Some examples are the Hartle–Hawking initial state, string landscape, brane inflation, string gas cosmology, and the ekpyrotic universe. Some of these are mutually compatible, while others are not.

Planck epoch

The Planck epoch is an era in traditional (non-inflationary) big bang cosmology in which the temperature is high enough that the four fundamental forces—electromagnetism, gravitation, weak nuclear interaction, and strong nuclear interaction—are all unified in one fundamental force. Little is understood about physics at this temperature, and different theories propose different scenarios. Traditional big bang cosmology predicts agravitational singularity before this time, but this theory is based on general relativity and is expected to break down due to quantum effects. Physicists hope that proposed theories of quantum gravitation, such as string theory, loop quantum gravity, and causal sets, will eventually lead to a better understanding of this epoch.^{[citation needed]} In inflationary cosmology, times prior to the end of inflation (roughly 10⁻³² seconds after the Big Bang) do not follow the traditional big bang timeline. The universe before the end of inflation is a near-vacuum with a very low temperature, and persists for much longer than 10⁻³² second. Times from the end of inflation are based on the big bang time of the non-inflationary big bang model, not on the actual age of the universe at that time, which cannot be determined in inflationary cosmology. Thus, in inflationary cosmology there is no Planck epoch in the traditional sense, though similar conditions may have prevailed in a pre-inflationary era of the universe.

Grand unification epoch

As the universe expands and cools, it crosses transition temperatures at which forces separate from each other. These are phase transitions much like condensation and freezing. The grand unification epoch begins when gravitation separates from the other forces of nature, which are collectively known as gauge forces. The non-gravitational physics in this epoch would be described by a so-called grand unified theory (GUT). The grand unification epoch ends when the GUT forces further separate into the strong and electroweak forces. This transition should produce magnetic monopoles in large quantities, which are not observed. The lack of magnetic monopoles was one problem solved by the introduction of inflation.

In modern inflationary cosmology, the traditional grand unification epoch, like the Planck epoch, does not exist, though similar conditions likely would have existed in the universe prior to inflation.

Recombination (cosmology)

9 year WMAP data (2012) shows the cosmic microwave background radiation variations throughout the Universe from our perspective, though the actual variations are much smoother than the diagram suggests.^[6]^[7]

Hydrogen and helium atoms begin to form as the density of the universe falls. This is thought to have occurred about 377,000 years after the Big Bang.^[8] Hydrogen and helium are at the beginning ionized, i.e., no electrons are bound to the nuclei, which (containing positively charged protons) are therefore electrically charged (+1 and +2 respectively). As the universe cools down, the electrons get captured by the ions, forming electrically neutral atoms. This process is relatively fast (actually faster for the helium than for the hydrogen) and is known as recombination.^[9] At the end of recombination, most of the protons in the universe are bound up in neutral atoms. Therefore, the photons’ mean free path becomes effectively infinite and the photons can now travel freely (seeThomson scattering): the universe has become transparent. This cosmic event is usually referred to as decoupling.

The photons present at the time of decoupling are the same photons that we see in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation, after being greatly cooled by the expansion of the Universe. Around the same time, existing pressure waves within the electron-baryon plasma-known as baryon acoustic oscillations- became embedded in the distribution of matter as it condensed, giving rise to a very slight preference in distribution of large scale objects. Therefore the cosmic microwave background is a picture of the universe at the end of this epoch including the tiny fluctuations generated during inflation (see diagram), and the spread of objects such as galaxies in the universe is an indication of the scale and size of the universe as it developed over time

Electroweak epoch

In traditional big bang cosmology, the Electroweak epoch begins 10^–36 seconds after the Big Bang, when the temperature of the universe is low enough (10²⁸ K) to separate the strong force from the electroweak force (the name for the unified forces of electromagnetism and the weak interaction). In inflationary cosmology, the electroweak epoch begins when the inflationary epoch ends, at roughly 10^–32 seconds.

[edit]Inflationary epoch

Unknown duration, ending 10^–32(?) seconds after the Big Bang

Main article: Inflationary epoch

Cosmic inflation is an era of accelerating expansion produced by a hypothesized field called the inflaton, which would have properties similar to theHiggs field and dark energy. While decelerating expansion magnifies deviations from homogeneity, making the universe more chaotic, accelerating expansion makes the universe more homogeneous. A sufficiently long period of inflationary expansion in our past could explain the high degree of homogeneity that is observed in the universe today at large scales, even if the state of the universe before inflation was highly disordered.

Inflation ends when the inflaton field decays into ordinary particles in a process called “reheating”, at which point ordinary Big Bang expansion begins. The time of reheating is usually quoted as a time “after the Big Bang”. This refers to the time that would have passed in traditional (non-inflationary) cosmology between the Big Bang singularity and the universe dropping to the same temperature that was produced by reheating, even though, in inflationary cosmology, the traditional Big Bang did not occur.

According to the simplest inflationary models, inflation ended at a temperature corresponding to roughly 10^–32 seconds after the Big Bang. As explained above, this does not imply that the inflationary era lasted less than 10^–32 seconds. In fact, in order to explain the observed homogeneity of the universe, the duration must be longer than 10^–32 seconds. In inflationary cosmology, the earliest meaningful time “after the Big Bang” is the time of the end of inflation.

[edit]Baryogenesis

Main article: Baryogenesis

There is currently insufficient observational evidence to explain why the universe contains far more baryons than antibaryons. A candidate explanation for this phenomenon must allow the Sakharov conditions to be satisfied at some time after the end of cosmological inflation. While particle physicssuggests asymmetries under which these conditions are met, these asymmetries are too small empirically to account for the observed baryon-antibaryon asymmetry of the universe.

Supersymmetry breaking

Main article: Supersymmetry breaking

If supersymmetry is a property of our universe, then it must be broken at an energy that is no lower than 1TeV, the electroweak symmetry scale. The masses of particles and their superpartners would then no longer be equal, which could explain why no superpartners of known particles have ever been observed.

[edit]Quark epoch

Between 10^–12 seconds and 10^–6 seconds after the Big Bang

Main article: Quark epoch

In electroweak symmetry breaking, at the end of the electroweak epoch, all the fundamental particles are believed to acquire a mass via the Higgs mechanism in which the Higgs boson acquires a vacuum expectation value. The fundamental interactions of gravitation, electromagnetism, the strong interaction and the weak interaction have now taken their present forms, but the temperature of the universe is still too high to allow quarks to bind together to form hadrons.

[edit]Hadron epoch

Between 10^–6 seconds and 1 second after the Big Bang

Main article: Hadron epoch

The quark-gluon plasma that composes the universe cools until hadrons, including baryons such as protons and neutrons, can form. At approximately 1 second after the Big Bang neutrinos decouple and begin traveling freely through space. This cosmic neutrino background, while unlikely to ever be observed in detail, is analogous to the cosmic microwave background that was emitted much later. (See above regarding the quark-gluon plasma, under the String Theory epoch)

[edit]Lepton epoch

Between 1 second and 10 seconds after the Big Bang

Main article: Lepton epoch

The majority of hadrons and anti-hadrons annihilate each other at the end of the hadron epoch, leaving leptons and anti-leptons dominating the mass of the universe. Approximately 10 seconds after the Big Bang the temperature of the universe falls to the point at which new lepton/anti-lepton pairs are no longer created and most leptons and anti-leptons are eliminated in annihilation reactions, leaving a small residue of leptons.^[4]

[edit]Photon epoch

Between 10 seconds and 380,000 years after the Big Bang

Main article: Photon epoch

After most leptons and anti-leptons are annihilated at the end of the lepton epoch the energy of the universe is dominated by photons. These photons are still interacting frequently with charged protons, electrons and (eventually) nuclei, and continue to do so for the next 380,000 years.

[edit]Nucleosynthesis

Between 3 minutes and 20 minutes after the Big Bang^[5]

Main article: Big Bang nucleosynthesis

During the photon epoch the temperature of the universe falls to the point where atomic nuclei can begin to form. Protons (hydrogen ions) and neutrons begin to combine into atomic nuclei in the process of nuclear fusion. Free neutrons combine with protons to form deuterium. Deuterium rapidly fuses into helium-4. Nucleosynthesis only lasts for about seventeen minutes, since the temperature and density of the universe has fallen to the point where nuclear fusion cannot continue. By this time, all neutrons have been incorporated into helium nuclei. This leaves about three times more hydrogen than helium-4 (by mass) and only trace quantities of other nuclei.

[edit]Matter domination

70,000 years after the Big Bang

At this time, the densities of non-relativistic matter (atomic nuclei) and relativistic radiation (photons) are equal. The Jeans length, which determines the smallest structures that can form (due to competition between gravitational attraction and pressure effects), begins to fall and perturbations, instead of being wiped out by free-streaming radiation, can begin to grow in amplitude.

According to ΛCDM, at this stage, cold dark matter dominates, paving the way for gravitational collapse to amplify the tiny inhomogeneities left by cosmic inflation, making dense regions denser and rarefied regions more rarefied. However, because present theories as to the nature of dark matter are inconclusive, there is as yet no consensus as to its origin at earlier times, as currently exist for baryonic matter.

[edit]Recombination

ca. 377,000 years after the Big Bang

Main article: Recombination (cosmology)

[edit]Dark Ages

[edit]Structure formation

The Hubble Ultra Deep Fields often showcase galaxies from an ancient era that tell us what the early Stelliferous Age was like.

Another Hubble image shows an infant galaxy forming nearby, which means this happened very recently on the cosmological timescale. This shows that new galaxy formation in the Universe is still occurring.

Structure formation in the big bang model proceeds hierarchically, with smaller structures forming before larger ones. The first structures to form are quasars, which are thought to be bright, earlyactive galaxies, and population III stars. Before this epoch, the evolution of the universe could be understood through linear cosmological perturbation theory: that is, all structures could be understood as small deviations from a perfect homogeneous universe. This is computationally relatively easy to study. At this point non-linear structures begin to form, and the computational problem becomes much more difficult, involving, for example, N-body simulations with billions of particles.

[edit]Reionization

150 million to 1 billion years after the Big Bang

See also: Reionization and 21 centimeter radiation

The first stars and quasars form from gravitational collapse. The intense radiation they emit reionizes the surrounding universe. From this point on, most of the universe is composed of plasma.

[edit]Formation of stars

[edit]Formation of galaxies

Large volumes of matter collapse to form a galaxy. Population II stars are formed early on in this process, with Population I stars formed later.

Johannes Schedler’s project has identified a quasar CFHQS 1641+3755 at 12.7 billion light-years away,^[13] when the Universe was just 7% of its present age.

On July 11, 2007, using the 10-metre Keck II telescope on Mauna Kea, Richard Ellis of the California Institute of Technology at Pasadena and his team found six star forming galaxies about 13.2 billion light years away and therefore created when the universe was only 500 million years old.^[14] Only about 10 of these extremely early objects are currently known.^[15]

The Hubble Ultra Deep Field shows a number of small galaxies merging to form larger ones, at 13 billion light years, when the Universe was only 5% its current age.^[16]

Based upon the emerging science of nucleocosmochronology, the Galactic thin disk of the Milky Way is estimated to have been formed 8.8 ± 1.7 billion years ago.^[17]

[edit]Formation of groups, clusters and superclusters

Gravitational attraction pulls galaxies towards each other to form groups, clusters and superclusters.

[edit]Formation of the solar system

9 billion years after the Big Bang

Main article: Formation and evolution of the Solar System

The solar system began forming about 4.6 billion years ago, or about 9 billion years after the Big Bang. A molecular cloud made mostly of hydrogen and traces of other elements began to collapse, forming a large sphere in the center which would become the Sun, as well as a surrounding disk. The surrounding accretion disk would coalesce into a multitude of smaller objects that would become planets, asteroids, and comets. The Sun is a late-generation star, and the Solar System incorporates matter created by previous generations of stars.

[edit]Today

13.7 billion years after the Big Bang

The best current data estimate the age of the universe today as 13.75 ± 0.11 billion years since the Big Bang. Since the expansion of the universe appears to be accelerating, the cosmic web is likely to be the largest structure that will ever form in the universe. The present accelerated expansion prevents any more inflationary structures entering the horizon and prevents new gravitationally bound structures from forming.

[edit]Ultimate fate of the universe

Main article: Ultimate fate of the universe

As with interpretations of what happened in the very early universe, advances in fundamental physics are required before it will be possible to know the ultimate fate of the universe with any certainty. Below are some of the main possibilities.

[edit]Fate of the Solar system: 1 to 5 billion years

Main articles: Formation and evolution of the Solar System#Future, Stability of the Solar System, Future of the Earth#Solar evolution, andRed giant#The Sun as a red giant

Relative size of our Sun as it is now (inset) compared to its estimated future size as a red giant

Over a timescale of a billion years or more, the earth and solar system are unstable. Earth’s existingbiosphere is expected to vanish in about a billion years, as the sun’s heat production gradually increases to the point that liquid water and life are unlikely;^[18] the earth’s magnetic fields, axial tilt and atmosphere are subject to long term change; and the Solar System itself is chaotic over million- and billion-year timescales;^[19] Eventually in around 5.4 billion years from now, the core of the Sun will become hot enough to trigger hydrogen fusion in its surrounding shell.^[18] This will cause the outer layers of the star to expand greatly, and the star will enter a phase of its life in which it is called a red giant.^[20]^[21] Within 7.5 billion years, the Sun will have expanded to a radius of 1.2 AU—256 times its current size, and studies announced in 2008 show that due to tidal interaction between Sun and Earth, Earth would actually fall back into a lower orbit, and get engulfed and incorporated inside the sun before the Sun reaches its largest size, despite the Sun losing about 38% of its mass.^[22] The Sun itself will continue to exist for many billions of years, passing through a number of phases, and eventually (if nothing else changes) ending up as a long-lived white dwarf. Eventually, after billions more years, the Sun will finally cease to shine altogether, becoming a black dwarf.^[23]

[edit]Big freeze: 10¹⁴ years and beyond

Main articles: Future of an expanding universe and Heat death of the universe

This scenario is generally considered to be the most likely,^{[citation needed]} as it occurs if the universe continues expanding as it has been. Over a time scale on the order of 10¹⁴ years or less, existing stars burn out, stars cease to be created, and the universe goes dark.^[24]^, §IID. Over a much longer time scale in the eras following this, the galaxy evaporates as the stellar remnants comprising it escape into space, and black holes evaporate viaHawking radiation.^[24]^{, §III, §IVG.} In some grand unified theories, proton decay after at least 10³⁴ years will convert the remaining interstellar gas and stellar remnants into leptons (such as positrons and electrons) and photons. Some positrons and electrons will then recombine into photons.^[24]^{, §IV, §VF.} In this case, the universe has reached a high-entropy state consisting of a bath of particles and low-energy radiation. It is not known however whether it eventually achieves thermodynamic equilibrium.^[24]^{, §VIB, VID.}